A new study suggests that across different facets of loneliness, such as frequency, distress, and chronicity, lonely individuals tend to interpret social situations more negatively, avoid others, and report lower self-esteem. The different facets of loneliness may require tailored interventions.
A new study suggests that across different facets of loneliness, such as frequency, distress, and chronicity, lonely individuals tend to consistently interpret social situations more negatively, avoid others, and experience lower self-esteem, according to new research published in PLOS ONE. The research was conducted by loneliness researchers Andrej Skoko, Noëmi Seewer, Marcus Mund, and Tobias Krieger from University of Bern. The study, based on a sample of 790 German adults, adds to a growing body of work suggesting that loneliness is tied to a consistent pattern of cognitive and behavioral differences, regardless of how it’s measured.
Psychologists have long debated how best to define loneliness. Some people feel it often; for others, it’s an occasional but painful experience. And for a few, loneliness becomes a near-permanent state. This study aimed to clarify whether those different experiences reflect one underlying problem, or if they capture distinct psychological profiles.
To find out, the researchers divided participants into lonely and non-lonely groups using three separate approaches:
Each approach identified a different portion of the sample as lonely. “In our sample, based on the different approaches, either 15.95% (frequency), 29.75% (distress), or 19.49% (chronicity) were classified in the lonely group compared to the non-lonely group,” the authors report.
Although the three definitions overlap, they also capture different groups of people. Most notably, the overlap between frequency and distress was only moderate. “Over half of the individuals (60%) who were classified in terms of distress (direct measure) were not classified as lonely in terms of frequency (indirect measure),” the researchers found. This means that many people who suffer from loneliness aren’t necessarily experiencing it often, and vice versa.
The strongest agreement was between distress and chronicity, suggesting that the emotional impact of loneliness tends to increase the longer it lasts. But across the board, the findings highlight that no single measure fully captures the complexity of loneliness. The way loneliness is measured shapes who gets identified as needing support.
Next, the researchers explored how lonely individuals differ from their non-lonely peers. Regardless of which definition was used, lonely people were more likely to:
“Lonely individuals tend to anticipate rejection, leading them to be more vigilant for social threats,” the authors explain, “which is theorized to promote social withdrawal.”
These patterns can play out in subtle ways. “These tendencies may manifest in everyday social settings, such as hesitancy to initiate conversations in group settings, reluctance to seek emotional support, or misinterpreting neutral social cues as rejection,” the study notes.
Crucially, these differences held even when accounting for depression and social anxiety. That suggests loneliness has a distinct psychological footprint; one that’s not reducible to other mental health conditions.
The study also points toward the need for more tailored approaches to intervention. Because each form of loneliness appears to come with its own profile, support strategies may need to be equally nuanced. “For instance, those experiencing frequent loneliness might benefit from cognitive restructuring,” the authors write, “while individuals with high distress could focus on emotional regulation, and those with chronic loneliness may require interventions targeting long-term avoidance patterns and social skills training.”
Cognitive restructuring refers to techniques used in cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) that help individuals identify and reframe unhelpful thought patterns—such as assuming others are judging or rejecting them. Emotional regulation strategies aim to build skills for managing intense feelings, including practices like mindfulness, distress tolerance, or naming and normalizing emotions. Social skills training typically involves practicing specific interpersonal behaviors, such as initiating conversations or expressing needs clearly, often through role-play or guided exercises. Addressing avoidance patterns may include gradual exposure to feared social situations, helping individuals rebuild confidence in their ability to connect with others.
This adds to a growing call among loneliness researchers to move away from generic “get out more” advice. Instead, evidence-based interventions could be better matched to the person’s specific experience of loneliness.
While the study is cross-sectional and cannot establish causality, it strengthens the view that loneliness is not a one-dimensional problem. Rather, it reflects a mix of emotional, behavioral, and cognitive processes that vary depending on how the experience unfolds
In recent years, loneliness has been recognized as a major risk factor for health and well-being, prompting public health responses in several countries. Studies like this one help explain why loneliness is so persistent, and why breaking the cycle may require more than just encouraging people to increase their social contacts.
